Understanding of Poverty According to Experts and their impact
Aammel Research. Poverty is a condition of economic inability to meet the average standard of living of people in an area. This condition is marked by the low ability of income to meet basic needs such as food, clothing and shelter so that ways to overcome social and economic inequality must be done.
This low income capability will also result in a lack of ability to meet average living standards such as public health standards and also education standards. In order to be clearer, we will provide a review of poverty understanding according to experts, complete with the causes.
Understanding of Poverty According to Experts on Academics Journals;
In the following, we will give some definitions of poverty according to experts which must be well understood.
1. Soerjono Soekanto
According to Soerjono Soekanto, poverty is defined as a condition where a person is unable to maintain himself in accordance with the standard of life of the group and cannot utilize the mental or physical energy within the group.
2. Gillin and Gillin
Poverty is a condition when a person cannot maintain his life scale that is high enough to provide physical and mental efficiency to enable himself and his family to function as they should according to community standards either because of inadequate income or due to unwise spending and experiencing human efforts to meet needs.
Poverty is a condition that is completely lacking because of the conditions that cannot be avoided by someone with all the power they have.
4. Reitsma and Kleinpenning
According to Reitsma and Kleinpenning, poverty is the inability of a person to meet his needs whether it is material or non-material.
5. Suparlan
Poverty is a low standard of living because of experiencing material shortages in a number or class of people when compared to the standard of living prevailing in the surrounding community so there are many examples of actions as social creatures that occur.
6. Friedman
According to Friedman, poverty is an inequality of opportunity to formulate social power in the form of assets, financial resources, social political organizations, social networks, goods or services, knowledge and skills as well as information.
7. Faturachman and Marcelinus Molo
According to Faturachman and Marcelinus Molo, poverty is the inability of a person or several people in the household to meet their basic needs.
8. Ellis
Ellis believes that poverty is a multidimensional symptom that can be assessed from the economic and socio-political dimensions.
9. Levitan
According to Levitan, poverty is a lack of goods and services needed to achieve a decent standard of living like humans in general that interfere with the process of social interaction.
10. Hall and Midgley
According to Hall and Midgley, poverty can be interpreted as a condition of material and social deprivation that causes a person to live below a decent standard of living or a condition in which a person experiences relative deprivation when compared to others in society.
11. Syaifuddin
Syaifuddin believes that a way of thinking that sees poverty as an absolute symptom and also as a relative symptom.
The way of thinking or modeling about poverty as an absolute symptom of viewing poverty as a condition of material deprivation, has little or no means to support its own life.
This realistic perspective consists of two perspectives, namely a cultural perspective and also a structural perspective.
Impact of Poverty
Poverty that occurs in a person in a community group can cause various impacts, such as:
1. Increase crime
Poverty is often associated with crime not without cause. Poor people will tend to do everything they can to make ends meet including crimes such as robbery, theft, fraud and even murder.
2. Increase Death Rate
People who live below the poverty line usually do not get adequate access to health and this will cause the death rate in the poor to increase.
3. Small access to education
The cost of education is quite high, causing the poor to not be able to access the world of education which is one example of social phenomena that occur in society but in a negative way. This will be further exacerbated by the conditions of people who lack because the lack of education will make them unable to compete and unable to rise from adversity.
4. Higher unemployment
People who are below the poverty line cannot access education so it will be difficult to compete in the world of work or business. This then causes the unemployment rate to increase.
Aammel Research
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Differences in Rural and Urban Sociology
Differences in Rural Sociology and Urban Sociology
This time we will provide an overview of the differences between rural sociology and urban sociology. But before that we will begin by explaining the meaning of sociology itself. Sociology is the field of science that studies all human behavior that lives in a particular environment in which there are many interactions between humans. Various forms of social interaction that occur such as cooperation, acculturation, assimilation, etc. are usually more examples of social interaction that leads to unity. When discussing the term sociology, certainly can not be separated from society. Well, do you know what exactly is called community?
Understanding Society According to Experts on Journal Education Research;
There are several notions of society expressed by experts in their respective fields. We will provide the following explanation to you. R. Linton who is an expert in anthropology explains that what is called the community is a group of people who have long lived and cooperated with each other or are connected as examples of individual social interaction with individuals so that they can make them think and organize according to social provisions and boundaries. M.J Herskovits explained that the public is following a certain way of life and is also organized. S.R Steinmetz who is an expert in sociology said that society is a large group which includes small groups that have close and regular relations. Hasan Shadily made a definition of society as a small or large group in which there are several people who interact with and influence each other.
Difference between Rural Sociology and Office Sociology 1. Rural Sociology Below are several definitions of rural sociology put forward by experts. From these definitions you can get clear information about the meaning and nature of rural sociology. Paul E. Zapt and T. Lynn Smith explained that rural sociology was a systematically developed knowledge which was obtained through a scientific method. As for what is learned is the organizational structure, social systems, processes, and various changes that occur.
Jhon M. Gillette explained that sociology is a branch of the science of sociology in which studying various rural communities so that it can express various conditions which will then be formulated into the principle of progress. Bertand also explained that sociology is a study that studies the relationship between humans and their rural environment. F. Stuard Chapin defines rural sociology as a study in which there is a comparative social process, organization in the village, and the condition of the population. In addition, there are two essence of rural sociology, namely old or classic and new or modern.
2. Urban Sociology Urban sociology is a science in which it examines various social phenomena, the process of social interaction, as well as all matters relating to society in urban areas. In the city there are various kinds of people who come from different economic and educational levels. In addition, the culture owned by urban communities also tends to be different. This causes the problems that exist in urban areas tend to be more complex or complex compared to problems that exist in the village. Below are some definitions of urban sociology according to experts: Max Weber, the concept of a city in which the community is in order to meet their needs in the local market.
The hallmark of a city is that there is a bastion, markets, and there is a system that has a cosmopolitan nature. Cristaller, urban sociology is a concept in which it functions to provide various services for the regions in its environment. That is, the city has a role as a center for community service. Sapari Imam Asy'ari, urban sociology is a field of science that studies and also analyzes all life that occurs in people who live in cities. Paulus Hariyono, a science in which studies of human relations, both individuals or groups living in urban areas with various aspects.
Some of these aspects include health, economics, law, and others. 3. Characteristics of Rural Communities Some things that characterize people who live in rural areas include: Relationships between citizens are closer and deeper when compared to relationships that are owned by urban communities. The relationship is even closer when compared to people living in other villages. The life systems that operate in rural areas are generally family and group. Most of the livelihoods of people who live in rural areas are farming or other jobs that are not agrarian but only done when they have free time.
4. Characteristics of Urban Communities Has individualistic character. They tend to be able to take care of their own needs without having to ask for help from others. A firmer division of labor where they also have boundaries that must be maintained. Opportunities for employment are greater than those in rural communities. The occurrence of social changes that are seen clearly because they are open to accept changes that come from outside. Thus the information we can convey to you. Hopefully information about the differences in rural social sociology and urban social sociology can help you. Also know the forms of social deviation that often occur in society.
This time we will provide an overview of the differences between rural sociology and urban sociology. But before that we will begin by explaining the meaning of sociology itself. Sociology is the field of science that studies all human behavior that lives in a particular environment in which there are many interactions between humans. Various forms of social interaction that occur such as cooperation, acculturation, assimilation, etc. are usually more examples of social interaction that leads to unity. When discussing the term sociology, certainly can not be separated from society. Well, do you know what exactly is called community?
Understanding Society According to Experts on Journal Education Research;
There are several notions of society expressed by experts in their respective fields. We will provide the following explanation to you. R. Linton who is an expert in anthropology explains that what is called the community is a group of people who have long lived and cooperated with each other or are connected as examples of individual social interaction with individuals so that they can make them think and organize according to social provisions and boundaries. M.J Herskovits explained that the public is following a certain way of life and is also organized. S.R Steinmetz who is an expert in sociology said that society is a large group which includes small groups that have close and regular relations. Hasan Shadily made a definition of society as a small or large group in which there are several people who interact with and influence each other.
Difference between Rural Sociology and Office Sociology 1. Rural Sociology Below are several definitions of rural sociology put forward by experts. From these definitions you can get clear information about the meaning and nature of rural sociology. Paul E. Zapt and T. Lynn Smith explained that rural sociology was a systematically developed knowledge which was obtained through a scientific method. As for what is learned is the organizational structure, social systems, processes, and various changes that occur.
Jhon M. Gillette explained that sociology is a branch of the science of sociology in which studying various rural communities so that it can express various conditions which will then be formulated into the principle of progress. Bertand also explained that sociology is a study that studies the relationship between humans and their rural environment. F. Stuard Chapin defines rural sociology as a study in which there is a comparative social process, organization in the village, and the condition of the population. In addition, there are two essence of rural sociology, namely old or classic and new or modern.
2. Urban Sociology Urban sociology is a science in which it examines various social phenomena, the process of social interaction, as well as all matters relating to society in urban areas. In the city there are various kinds of people who come from different economic and educational levels. In addition, the culture owned by urban communities also tends to be different. This causes the problems that exist in urban areas tend to be more complex or complex compared to problems that exist in the village. Below are some definitions of urban sociology according to experts: Max Weber, the concept of a city in which the community is in order to meet their needs in the local market.
The hallmark of a city is that there is a bastion, markets, and there is a system that has a cosmopolitan nature. Cristaller, urban sociology is a concept in which it functions to provide various services for the regions in its environment. That is, the city has a role as a center for community service. Sapari Imam Asy'ari, urban sociology is a field of science that studies and also analyzes all life that occurs in people who live in cities. Paulus Hariyono, a science in which studies of human relations, both individuals or groups living in urban areas with various aspects.
Some of these aspects include health, economics, law, and others. 3. Characteristics of Rural Communities Some things that characterize people who live in rural areas include: Relationships between citizens are closer and deeper when compared to relationships that are owned by urban communities. The relationship is even closer when compared to people living in other villages. The life systems that operate in rural areas are generally family and group. Most of the livelihoods of people who live in rural areas are farming or other jobs that are not agrarian but only done when they have free time.
4. Characteristics of Urban Communities Has individualistic character. They tend to be able to take care of their own needs without having to ask for help from others. A firmer division of labor where they also have boundaries that must be maintained. Opportunities for employment are greater than those in rural communities. The occurrence of social changes that are seen clearly because they are open to accept changes that come from outside. Thus the information we can convey to you. Hopefully information about the differences in rural social sociology and urban social sociology can help you. Also know the forms of social deviation that often occur in society.
Antimicrobial Activity Test in Plants
Antimicrobial Activity Test in Plants
Basil leaves have fungicidal and antibacterial compounds such as essential oils with the main chemical content are linalool (56.7% - 60%) which can be used as an alternative natural preservative for wet noodles. The purpose of this study was to determine the best concentration of basil leaf extract that could inhibit the growth of E. coli and A. niger in order to increase the shelf life of wet noodles. The research method used was experimental and analyzed descriptively by conducting several tests, namely the determination of test materials, making extracts with maceration method, antimicrobial test with agar diffusion method against E. coli and A. niger and testing of wet noodles which included water content test, Total Plate Count (TPC), total mold, total coliform, and organoleptic tests.
The results showed antimicrobial activity of neem (Azadirachta Indica) that basil leaf extract concentration of 100% could inhibit E. coli and A. niger with inhibition zones of 30.98 mm and 5.96 mm. Application of basil leaf extract concentration of 100% in wet noodles showed a total number of microbes of 4.5 × 108 CFU / g, the total number of molds was 3.8 × 109 CFU / g, and coliform values met the standard of 10 APM / g until the day the 3rd. Wet noodles with the addition of basil leaf extract have good quality and aroma quality, and some parameters are still in accordance with SNI 01-2987-2015. Traditional medicinal plants have been widely used to treat infectious diseases caused by microorganisms.
This study aims to determine the antibacterial activity of red guava leaf extract and white guava leaf extract (Psidium guajava Linn) with methanol and to compare the two extracts in inhibiting the growth of Escherichia coli. This type of research is a laboratory experiment using a completely randomized design (CRD) divided into 5 treatment groups and 2 control groups. Each repetition is done 5 times. The treatments consisted of methanol extract of red guava leaves and white guava leaves, each with a concentration of 25%, 50% and 75%. The positive control used is Chloramphenicol and the negative control is distilled water. The antibacterial test was carried out by the Kirby Bauer disk diffusion method. Data were analyzed with ANOVA and continued with the Least Significant Difference test (LSD).
The results showed that the methanol extract of red guava leaves with concentrations of 25%, 50% and 75% can form inhibitory zones to the growth of E. coli with an average of 9.9 mm, 11.3 mm and 12.9 mm, whereas at methanol extracts of white guava leaves form inhibitory zones of 9.2 mm, 10.7 mm and 12.1 mm. ANOVA and BNT test results showed that red guava leaf extract and white guava leaf showed significant differences in inhibiting the growth of E. coli. The higher the concentration of the extract, the greater the inhibitory zone formed. So from the conclusions above it can be concluded that the methanol extract of white guava leaves can inhibit the growth of E. coli. There is a difference in inhibition zone diameter between methanol extracts of red guava leaves and white guava leaves on the growth of E. coli.
The methanol extract of red guava leaves is better than the methanol extract of white guava leaves in inhibiting the growth of Escherichia coli. Keywords: Methanol Extract Red Guava Leaves and White Guava Leaves, Escherichia coli Antibacterial, In vitro The purpose of this study was to observe the antibacterial activity on the leaves of bamboo ropes (Gigantochloa apus) with different types of solvents against E. coli and S. Typhimurium bacteria. Tali bamboo leaf is extracted by maceration method using 70% ethanol and methanol. Antibacterial activity tests were carried out using the Kirby and Bauer agar diffusion method. The concentration of bamboo leaf extract used was 0.00%, 0.02%, 0.04%, 0.06%, 0.08% and 0.02% cotrimoxazole as positive controls. MIC and MBC values were calculated based on the highest antibacterial activity. The results of this study indicate that the ethanol extract of Tali bamboo leaves at the levels of 0.04%, 0.06% and 0.08% have low antibacterial activity (5 mm), whereas methanol extracts up to the 0.08% level do not have antibacterial activity on the growth of E. Coli and S Typhimurium. MIC value of bamboo leaf ethanol extract against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium bacteria was 0.2% and 0.3%. Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that bamboo leaves extracted with ethanol have better antibacterial activity than methanol with MIC of 0.2% and 0.3%.
Background: The polyphenol (catechin) content in tea leaves is known to have an antimicrobial effect on some bacteria. The degree of fermentation of tea leaves will affect its antimicrobial power. Toothpaste containing 2% fresh tea leaf extract (Camellia sinensis) is expected to have an antimicrobial effect. Objective: this knowledge aims to determine the antimicrobial power of 2% fresh tea extracts against A. actinomycetemcomitans. Research Methods: A. actinomycetemcomitans bacteria were obtained from the Microbiology Laboratory of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta. Dilution of toothpaste with 2% tea content diluted to 0.875%; 1.75%; 2.5%; 5%; 10%; and 100% (positive control).
The diffusion method was carried out on 15 petri by means of each concentration taken 100 ul and then dropped into each well on the BHI media so that which contained A. Actinomycetemcomitans then the petri was incubated in an incubator for 24 hours at 370 C. The measurement of the diameter of the resistance zone around the well using calipers, assisted with a microscope, then the data were analyzed using AVANA and LSD. The results showed that the antibacterial power of toothpaste containing 2% of tea extract against bacteria A. Actinomycetemcomitans was started at a concentration of 5% and there was a significant difference (p 0.01) the effect of concentration on the resulting zone of inhibition. It was concluded that an increase in the concentration of toothpaste and tea extract will increase the antimicrobial power against the bacterium A. Actinomycetemcomitans.
Basil leaves have fungicidal and antibacterial compounds such as essential oils with the main chemical content are linalool (56.7% - 60%) which can be used as an alternative natural preservative for wet noodles. The purpose of this study was to determine the best concentration of basil leaf extract that could inhibit the growth of E. coli and A. niger in order to increase the shelf life of wet noodles. The research method used was experimental and analyzed descriptively by conducting several tests, namely the determination of test materials, making extracts with maceration method, antimicrobial test with agar diffusion method against E. coli and A. niger and testing of wet noodles which included water content test, Total Plate Count (TPC), total mold, total coliform, and organoleptic tests.
The results showed antimicrobial activity of neem (Azadirachta Indica) that basil leaf extract concentration of 100% could inhibit E. coli and A. niger with inhibition zones of 30.98 mm and 5.96 mm. Application of basil leaf extract concentration of 100% in wet noodles showed a total number of microbes of 4.5 × 108 CFU / g, the total number of molds was 3.8 × 109 CFU / g, and coliform values met the standard of 10 APM / g until the day the 3rd. Wet noodles with the addition of basil leaf extract have good quality and aroma quality, and some parameters are still in accordance with SNI 01-2987-2015. Traditional medicinal plants have been widely used to treat infectious diseases caused by microorganisms.
This study aims to determine the antibacterial activity of red guava leaf extract and white guava leaf extract (Psidium guajava Linn) with methanol and to compare the two extracts in inhibiting the growth of Escherichia coli. This type of research is a laboratory experiment using a completely randomized design (CRD) divided into 5 treatment groups and 2 control groups. Each repetition is done 5 times. The treatments consisted of methanol extract of red guava leaves and white guava leaves, each with a concentration of 25%, 50% and 75%. The positive control used is Chloramphenicol and the negative control is distilled water. The antibacterial test was carried out by the Kirby Bauer disk diffusion method. Data were analyzed with ANOVA and continued with the Least Significant Difference test (LSD).
The results showed that the methanol extract of red guava leaves with concentrations of 25%, 50% and 75% can form inhibitory zones to the growth of E. coli with an average of 9.9 mm, 11.3 mm and 12.9 mm, whereas at methanol extracts of white guava leaves form inhibitory zones of 9.2 mm, 10.7 mm and 12.1 mm. ANOVA and BNT test results showed that red guava leaf extract and white guava leaf showed significant differences in inhibiting the growth of E. coli. The higher the concentration of the extract, the greater the inhibitory zone formed. So from the conclusions above it can be concluded that the methanol extract of white guava leaves can inhibit the growth of E. coli. There is a difference in inhibition zone diameter between methanol extracts of red guava leaves and white guava leaves on the growth of E. coli.
The methanol extract of red guava leaves is better than the methanol extract of white guava leaves in inhibiting the growth of Escherichia coli. Keywords: Methanol Extract Red Guava Leaves and White Guava Leaves, Escherichia coli Antibacterial, In vitro The purpose of this study was to observe the antibacterial activity on the leaves of bamboo ropes (Gigantochloa apus) with different types of solvents against E. coli and S. Typhimurium bacteria. Tali bamboo leaf is extracted by maceration method using 70% ethanol and methanol. Antibacterial activity tests were carried out using the Kirby and Bauer agar diffusion method. The concentration of bamboo leaf extract used was 0.00%, 0.02%, 0.04%, 0.06%, 0.08% and 0.02% cotrimoxazole as positive controls. MIC and MBC values were calculated based on the highest antibacterial activity. The results of this study indicate that the ethanol extract of Tali bamboo leaves at the levels of 0.04%, 0.06% and 0.08% have low antibacterial activity (5 mm), whereas methanol extracts up to the 0.08% level do not have antibacterial activity on the growth of E. Coli and S Typhimurium. MIC value of bamboo leaf ethanol extract against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium bacteria was 0.2% and 0.3%. Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that bamboo leaves extracted with ethanol have better antibacterial activity than methanol with MIC of 0.2% and 0.3%.
Background: The polyphenol (catechin) content in tea leaves is known to have an antimicrobial effect on some bacteria. The degree of fermentation of tea leaves will affect its antimicrobial power. Toothpaste containing 2% fresh tea leaf extract (Camellia sinensis) is expected to have an antimicrobial effect. Objective: this knowledge aims to determine the antimicrobial power of 2% fresh tea extracts against A. actinomycetemcomitans. Research Methods: A. actinomycetemcomitans bacteria were obtained from the Microbiology Laboratory of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta. Dilution of toothpaste with 2% tea content diluted to 0.875%; 1.75%; 2.5%; 5%; 10%; and 100% (positive control).
The diffusion method was carried out on 15 petri by means of each concentration taken 100 ul and then dropped into each well on the BHI media so that which contained A. Actinomycetemcomitans then the petri was incubated in an incubator for 24 hours at 370 C. The measurement of the diameter of the resistance zone around the well using calipers, assisted with a microscope, then the data were analyzed using AVANA and LSD. The results showed that the antibacterial power of toothpaste containing 2% of tea extract against bacteria A. Actinomycetemcomitans was started at a concentration of 5% and there was a significant difference (p 0.01) the effect of concentration on the resulting zone of inhibition. It was concluded that an increase in the concentration of toothpaste and tea extract will increase the antimicrobial power against the bacterium A. Actinomycetemcomitans.
Research Function in Development
Research Function in Development
As beings endowed with reason and mind that distinguish them from other creatures, humans always have a desire to know about the problems and problems that occur around them. Various kinds of events that occur in the environment require us to think and continue to think in order to solve problems that occur. To overcome the problems that almost every time facing required a study that aims to reveal the answers and solve problems. Problems experienced by humans not only revolve around social life, but in the economic, legal, health and so on. Research has a major contribution in solving these problems (Utilization of postgraduate students research for national development). The existence of research becomes a tool in changing behavior in human life, developing existing knowledge, and discovering new sciences that have never been discovered before.
science will not have development without the research carried out by experts in their respective fields. Economists will research in economics, geographers will research in their fields, sociologists, anthropologists, and health experts will research in the fields they are engaged in. Through the studies carried out, whether carried out using empirical data, laboratories and documentation studies in the library will produce brilliant works that can become proposals in making decisions and policies that will ultimately experience significant development in real life.
Everyone has the same opportunity to do research according to their needs, expertise and skills. Lecturers who teach at the Faculty of social sciences will research social science, lecturers who study law will explore and resolve legal issues, and lecturers who teach at other faculties also have the same rights. Likewise, students who are pursuing knowledge in their fields certainly have the opportunity to conduct research in the fields that they master. But unfortunately the results of research conducted by students are nothing more than blank paper that has no meaning in development.
The results of the research will be placed in a library where no one reads it. In fact, if the results of the research are disseminated for consumption by the general public, the benefits will be extraordinary and support the development of this nation. Imagine how many tens of thousands of students study at Indonesian tertiary institutions. Each of them is required to complete a study to end their studies. If the results are collected and utilized by policy makers it will certainly be an extraordinary and very supportive input in national development. Research in the social field that examines poverty and unemployment for example, through this study a researcher can find the answers and suitable models to overcome them.
If these results are taken and applied empirically it will reduce poverty and unemployment which is very large. But sometimes the results of this study do not get serious attention. as a result the research carried out has no meaning in development. Sociology was created to help life in society. There are so many aspects of life that have been helped by the existence of this sociology in the midst of society. Even some fairly complex social problems can be solved easily by using the science of sociology. This means that the use of sociology in society has indeed been like its function since it was first created in France. Even sociology has an important role in the development that exists in society.
Because sociology will provide information and facts that are needed before development is carried out. So that after the building is finished, it will be right on target and in accordance with what is needed by the community. Some of the Roles of Sociology in Development and Research The most important thing in development activities is the social changes that may occur and also the social forces that exist in society. Where sociology already includes all this information. Some differences in transmigration and urbanization are very important to study. The role of sociology in society is: The role of sociology in the field of development. Sociology itself has a role in the field of development as a provider of a comprehensive picture of the negative and positive impacts that will occur if the development is carried out. So that life in society remains balanced between needs and prevailing norms. This is the difference between plural and multicultural societies.
As beings endowed with reason and mind that distinguish them from other creatures, humans always have a desire to know about the problems and problems that occur around them. Various kinds of events that occur in the environment require us to think and continue to think in order to solve problems that occur. To overcome the problems that almost every time facing required a study that aims to reveal the answers and solve problems. Problems experienced by humans not only revolve around social life, but in the economic, legal, health and so on. Research has a major contribution in solving these problems (Utilization of postgraduate students research for national development). The existence of research becomes a tool in changing behavior in human life, developing existing knowledge, and discovering new sciences that have never been discovered before.
science will not have development without the research carried out by experts in their respective fields. Economists will research in economics, geographers will research in their fields, sociologists, anthropologists, and health experts will research in the fields they are engaged in. Through the studies carried out, whether carried out using empirical data, laboratories and documentation studies in the library will produce brilliant works that can become proposals in making decisions and policies that will ultimately experience significant development in real life.
Everyone has the same opportunity to do research according to their needs, expertise and skills. Lecturers who teach at the Faculty of social sciences will research social science, lecturers who study law will explore and resolve legal issues, and lecturers who teach at other faculties also have the same rights. Likewise, students who are pursuing knowledge in their fields certainly have the opportunity to conduct research in the fields that they master. But unfortunately the results of research conducted by students are nothing more than blank paper that has no meaning in development.
The results of the research will be placed in a library where no one reads it. In fact, if the results of the research are disseminated for consumption by the general public, the benefits will be extraordinary and support the development of this nation. Imagine how many tens of thousands of students study at Indonesian tertiary institutions. Each of them is required to complete a study to end their studies. If the results are collected and utilized by policy makers it will certainly be an extraordinary and very supportive input in national development. Research in the social field that examines poverty and unemployment for example, through this study a researcher can find the answers and suitable models to overcome them.
If these results are taken and applied empirically it will reduce poverty and unemployment which is very large. But sometimes the results of this study do not get serious attention. as a result the research carried out has no meaning in development. Sociology was created to help life in society. There are so many aspects of life that have been helped by the existence of this sociology in the midst of society. Even some fairly complex social problems can be solved easily by using the science of sociology. This means that the use of sociology in society has indeed been like its function since it was first created in France. Even sociology has an important role in the development that exists in society.
Because sociology will provide information and facts that are needed before development is carried out. So that after the building is finished, it will be right on target and in accordance with what is needed by the community. Some of the Roles of Sociology in Development and Research The most important thing in development activities is the social changes that may occur and also the social forces that exist in society. Where sociology already includes all this information. Some differences in transmigration and urbanization are very important to study. The role of sociology in society is: The role of sociology in the field of development. Sociology itself has a role in the field of development as a provider of a comprehensive picture of the negative and positive impacts that will occur if the development is carried out. So that life in society remains balanced between needs and prevailing norms. This is the difference between plural and multicultural societies.
What is meant by agroforestry?
What is meant by agroforestry?
Agroforestry is a land use system (farming) that combines trees with agricultural crops to increase profits, both economically and environmentally. In this system, plant diversity is created in an area of land so that it will reduce the risk of failure and protect the soil from erosion and reduce the need for fertilizer or nutrients from outside the garden because of the recycling of crop residues. The following is an example of some agroforestry systems (allometric equations for estimating biomass in Silvopastoral System) 1. Grass Strip Grass strips are a form of transition from an annual crop farming system to an agroforestry system. The grass strip is a row of grass with a width of 0.5-1 m and the distance between the 4-10 m strips planted parallel to the height line (contour). On terraced soil, grass is planted on the edge (lip) of the terrace.
The suitable type of grass is grass that has a dense root system and can be used as fodder forage, for example elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum), BD grass (Brachiaria decumbens), BH grass (Brachiaria humidicola), bitter grass (Paspallum notatum) and others . Sometimes fragrant root grass (Vetiveria zizanioides) is also used as a grass strip plant. Fragrant roots are not preferred by livestock, but produce essential oils which are the raw material for making cosmetics. Advantages of grass strips: Reducing surface flow velocity and erosion Strengthening core lip Providing forage forage. Helps accelerate the process of forming the terrace naturally.
2. Hallway Planting This system is an agricultural system in which annual crops are planted in a corridor between rows of hedges arranged according to contour lines. Types of plants that are suitable for hedges are legumes (legumes), gamal (Flemingia congesta Gliricidia sepium), lamtoro (Leucaena leucocephala), and Calliandra callothirsus. The distance between rows of hedgerows ranges from 4 to 10 m. The steeper the slope, the distance between the rows of hedges is getting closer. Advantages of hedgerows: Donating organic matter and nutrients, especially nitrogen, for alley plants. Reducing the rate of surface runoff and erosion. Weaknesses of hedgerows and grass strips:
Hedges or grass strips take up 5-15% of the total area land. Often there is competition with aisle plants. Sometimes the effect of allelopathy (a liquid or gas released by a hedge plant that interferes with the growth of the aisle plant). The need for labor is high enough for planting and maintaining hedges. 3. Living Fence A living fence is a line of shrubs or trees planted on the edge of a garden. If the garden is on steep sloping land, the living fence will form a network that is beneficial for soil conservation. The pruning can be used as a source of organic material or as fodder forage. Types of plants used for fences should be easily planted and easily obtained seeds, for example gamal with cuttings, turi, lamtoro and calliandra with seeds.
For legume tree species of shrubs (lamtoro, gamal), planted with a spacing of ± 20 cm. This tight space is to keep the hedges from growing too tall. Advantages of life fence: Protecting the garden from livestock The pruning can be used as fodder forage Become a source of organic matter and soil nutrients Providing firewood Reducing wind speed 4. Multistrata System Multistrata system is a multi-level canopy agricultural system, consisting of tall canopy plants (such as mango, candlenut), medium (such as lamtoro, gamal, coffee) and low (annual crops, grass) planted in one garden (see picture on the front page ). Between one plant and one others are arranged so that they do not compete with each other. Certain plants such as coffee, cocoa need a little shade, but if too much shade grows and production will be disrupted.
Advantages of multistrata systems: Reducing the intensity of sunlight, for example for coffee and chocolate that need shade. Because there are many types of plants, it is expected that the harvest can take place alternately throughout the year and this can avoid the lean season. The soil is always covered with plants so it is safe from erosion 1. Agroforestry: New Sciences, Old Techniques Planting various types of trees with or without annual crops (a year) on the same plot of land has long been carried out by farmers (including cultivators) in forest. Examples of this kind can be seen in the fields around the residence of farmers. This practice has become more widespread lately, especially in forest margins due to the increasingly limited availability of land. The conversion of natural forests into agricultural land creates many problems, for example decreasing fertility land, erosion, extinction of flora and fauna, floods, drought and even environmental changes. Globally, this problem is getting worse in line with the increase in the area of forest that is converted into other business land.
This event was triggered by efforts to meet the needs, especially food both globally, caused by an increase in population. In the midst of this development agroforestry was born, a new branch of science in agriculture and forestry that tried to combine plant and tree elements. This science tries to recognize and developing agroforestry systems that have been practiced by farmers since centuries ago. 2. What Is meant by Agroforestry? Until now there has been no unity of opinion among experts on the definition of "agroforestry". Almost every expert proposes a different definition from the other. Defining agroforestry is as difficult as defining forest. In the journal "Agroforestry Systems" Volume 1 No.1, pages 7-12 of 1982 displayed no less than 12 definitions, including: Agroforestry is integrated land use system, which has social and ecological aspects, is carried out through the combination of trees with agricultural crops and / or livestock (animals), either together or in rotation, so that from one unit of land an optimal total vegetable or animal yield is achieved in the sense sustainability (PKR Nair) sustainable land management system and able to increase overall land production, is a combination of agricultural crop production (including annual crops) with forest plants and / or animals (livestock), both together or in rotation, carried out on one plot of land with apply practical management techniques that are appropriate to the culture of the local community (K.F.S. King and M.T. Chandler) planting trees simultaneously or in sequence with agricultural and / or livestock crops, both within the scope of small families or large companies.
Agroforestry is not the same as community forestry, but is often appropriate for the implementation of community forestry projects "(L. Roche) Some definitions of agroforestry used by international agroforestry research institutions (ICRAF = International Center for Research in Agroforestry) are (Huxley, 1999): land use system that combines woody plants (trees, shrubs, bamboo, rattan and others) with non woody plants or can also be with grass (pasture), sometimes there are components of livestock or other animals (bees, fish) to form ecological interactions and economical between woody plants with other components. land use system that combines woody plants with non woody plants (sometimes with animals) that grow together or take turns on a land, to obtain various products and services (services) so as to form ecological and economic interactions between plant components. Ecologically dynamic natural resource management system by planting trees on agricultural land or pasture to obtain a variety of products in a sustainable manner so as to increase social, economic and environmental benefits for all land users Next Lundgren and Raintree (1982) propose a summary of many agroforestry definitions with the following formula:
Agroforestry is a collective term for land use systems and technologies, which is planned to be implemented on one land unit by combining woody plants (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboo, etc.) with agricultural crops and / or animals (livestock) and / or fish, which are carried out at the same time or in rotation so as to form ecological and economic interactions between various components. From the various definitions cited in full, agroforestry is a new term from traditional land use practices that have the following elements: Land use or land use system by humans Application of technology Components of annual plants, annual plants and / or livestock or animals The time can be the same or take turns in a certain period There are ecological, social, economic interactions
Agroforestry is a land use system (farming) that combines trees with agricultural crops to increase profits, both economically and environmentally. In this system, plant diversity is created in an area of land so that it will reduce the risk of failure and protect the soil from erosion and reduce the need for fertilizer or nutrients from outside the garden because of the recycling of crop residues. The following is an example of some agroforestry systems (allometric equations for estimating biomass in Silvopastoral System) 1. Grass Strip Grass strips are a form of transition from an annual crop farming system to an agroforestry system. The grass strip is a row of grass with a width of 0.5-1 m and the distance between the 4-10 m strips planted parallel to the height line (contour). On terraced soil, grass is planted on the edge (lip) of the terrace.
The suitable type of grass is grass that has a dense root system and can be used as fodder forage, for example elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum), BD grass (Brachiaria decumbens), BH grass (Brachiaria humidicola), bitter grass (Paspallum notatum) and others . Sometimes fragrant root grass (Vetiveria zizanioides) is also used as a grass strip plant. Fragrant roots are not preferred by livestock, but produce essential oils which are the raw material for making cosmetics. Advantages of grass strips: Reducing surface flow velocity and erosion Strengthening core lip Providing forage forage. Helps accelerate the process of forming the terrace naturally.
2. Hallway Planting This system is an agricultural system in which annual crops are planted in a corridor between rows of hedges arranged according to contour lines. Types of plants that are suitable for hedges are legumes (legumes), gamal (Flemingia congesta Gliricidia sepium), lamtoro (Leucaena leucocephala), and Calliandra callothirsus. The distance between rows of hedgerows ranges from 4 to 10 m. The steeper the slope, the distance between the rows of hedges is getting closer. Advantages of hedgerows: Donating organic matter and nutrients, especially nitrogen, for alley plants. Reducing the rate of surface runoff and erosion. Weaknesses of hedgerows and grass strips:
Hedges or grass strips take up 5-15% of the total area land. Often there is competition with aisle plants. Sometimes the effect of allelopathy (a liquid or gas released by a hedge plant that interferes with the growth of the aisle plant). The need for labor is high enough for planting and maintaining hedges. 3. Living Fence A living fence is a line of shrubs or trees planted on the edge of a garden. If the garden is on steep sloping land, the living fence will form a network that is beneficial for soil conservation. The pruning can be used as a source of organic material or as fodder forage. Types of plants used for fences should be easily planted and easily obtained seeds, for example gamal with cuttings, turi, lamtoro and calliandra with seeds.
For legume tree species of shrubs (lamtoro, gamal), planted with a spacing of ± 20 cm. This tight space is to keep the hedges from growing too tall. Advantages of life fence: Protecting the garden from livestock The pruning can be used as fodder forage Become a source of organic matter and soil nutrients Providing firewood Reducing wind speed 4. Multistrata System Multistrata system is a multi-level canopy agricultural system, consisting of tall canopy plants (such as mango, candlenut), medium (such as lamtoro, gamal, coffee) and low (annual crops, grass) planted in one garden (see picture on the front page ). Between one plant and one others are arranged so that they do not compete with each other. Certain plants such as coffee, cocoa need a little shade, but if too much shade grows and production will be disrupted.
Advantages of multistrata systems: Reducing the intensity of sunlight, for example for coffee and chocolate that need shade. Because there are many types of plants, it is expected that the harvest can take place alternately throughout the year and this can avoid the lean season. The soil is always covered with plants so it is safe from erosion 1. Agroforestry: New Sciences, Old Techniques Planting various types of trees with or without annual crops (a year) on the same plot of land has long been carried out by farmers (including cultivators) in forest. Examples of this kind can be seen in the fields around the residence of farmers. This practice has become more widespread lately, especially in forest margins due to the increasingly limited availability of land. The conversion of natural forests into agricultural land creates many problems, for example decreasing fertility land, erosion, extinction of flora and fauna, floods, drought and even environmental changes. Globally, this problem is getting worse in line with the increase in the area of forest that is converted into other business land.
This event was triggered by efforts to meet the needs, especially food both globally, caused by an increase in population. In the midst of this development agroforestry was born, a new branch of science in agriculture and forestry that tried to combine plant and tree elements. This science tries to recognize and developing agroforestry systems that have been practiced by farmers since centuries ago. 2. What Is meant by Agroforestry? Until now there has been no unity of opinion among experts on the definition of "agroforestry". Almost every expert proposes a different definition from the other. Defining agroforestry is as difficult as defining forest. In the journal "Agroforestry Systems" Volume 1 No.1, pages 7-12 of 1982 displayed no less than 12 definitions, including: Agroforestry is integrated land use system, which has social and ecological aspects, is carried out through the combination of trees with agricultural crops and / or livestock (animals), either together or in rotation, so that from one unit of land an optimal total vegetable or animal yield is achieved in the sense sustainability (PKR Nair) sustainable land management system and able to increase overall land production, is a combination of agricultural crop production (including annual crops) with forest plants and / or animals (livestock), both together or in rotation, carried out on one plot of land with apply practical management techniques that are appropriate to the culture of the local community (K.F.S. King and M.T. Chandler) planting trees simultaneously or in sequence with agricultural and / or livestock crops, both within the scope of small families or large companies.
Agroforestry is not the same as community forestry, but is often appropriate for the implementation of community forestry projects "(L. Roche) Some definitions of agroforestry used by international agroforestry research institutions (ICRAF = International Center for Research in Agroforestry) are (Huxley, 1999): land use system that combines woody plants (trees, shrubs, bamboo, rattan and others) with non woody plants or can also be with grass (pasture), sometimes there are components of livestock or other animals (bees, fish) to form ecological interactions and economical between woody plants with other components. land use system that combines woody plants with non woody plants (sometimes with animals) that grow together or take turns on a land, to obtain various products and services (services) so as to form ecological and economic interactions between plant components. Ecologically dynamic natural resource management system by planting trees on agricultural land or pasture to obtain a variety of products in a sustainable manner so as to increase social, economic and environmental benefits for all land users Next Lundgren and Raintree (1982) propose a summary of many agroforestry definitions with the following formula:
Agroforestry is a collective term for land use systems and technologies, which is planned to be implemented on one land unit by combining woody plants (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboo, etc.) with agricultural crops and / or animals (livestock) and / or fish, which are carried out at the same time or in rotation so as to form ecological and economic interactions between various components. From the various definitions cited in full, agroforestry is a new term from traditional land use practices that have the following elements: Land use or land use system by humans Application of technology Components of annual plants, annual plants and / or livestock or animals The time can be the same or take turns in a certain period There are ecological, social, economic interactions
What is the difference between traders and entrepreneurs?
What is the difference between traders and entrepreneurs?
Basically, some people consider traders and entrepreneurs to have no difference, but actually when examined carefully traders and entrepreneurs have many significant differences, one of which is that traders only want merchandise to sell well and earn income. While entrepreneurs generally think about planning their business in the long run Before examining the difference between traders and entrepreneurs, let us first find out what traders and entrepreneurs are sociodemographic characteristics and practices of retailers and consumers. Trader is a person or entity buying, receiving or storing goods with the intention to sell, deliver or send to another person or entity that is still in the form of genuine important goods, or that has been made into other goods.
Therefore, traders have the meaning that someone who sells an item wants to get a profit. That does not mean that entrepreneurs do not want to profit huh. In carrying out its business the trader will look for goods that have a lower price or below the selling price and will be sold again at a price difference that will be the profit of the sword. One example is a trader who buys vegetables at a price of 10 thousand rupiah, then he can sell it to 13 thousand rupiah.
That's how traders in general work. Entrepreneurs are people who have the ability to see and assess business opportunities. Gather the resources needed to take advantage of it and take appropriate action, to ensure success. Entrepreneurs will have a greater investment risk than those borne by the trader. Because entrepreneurs may not be able to get their profits right away. Another case with traders who can profit after selling their merchandise.
An entrepreneur will usually have a very strong mental and also resilient. Employers have also become accustomed to being pressured. That is because an entrepreneur may experience a major failure when his business cannot be accepted by the community. Mentalism between traders and entrepreneurs can be one of the biggest differences between them. The thing that distinguishes traders and entrepreneurs. The first difference between traders and entrepreneurs can be seen from the planning. An entrepreneur will definitely plan his business in the short term, medium term and also in the long term. As for traders, generally they are not too concerned with a plan.
For traders, if the merchandise sells, they are very happy. So there is no detailed monitoring of the benefits as carried out by an entrepreneur. The second difference is in the way of looking at consumers. A trader considers the consumer is the person who will give him money, therefore a trader will try to "seize" as much money from consumers by increasing prices so that there is a bargaining process. An entrepreneur is more maintaining good relations with consumers, therefore an entrepreneur tries to provide the best price for consumers in the hope that consumers are satisfied and become loyal customers for him.
Therefore, traders can be the first step as entrepreneurs, but many of them continue to be traders for life. That's because he besides not having a vision and not being able to build a plan of his business system, is also less able to optimize the potential such as capital owned to develop trade Hopefully this article is useful for you. Don't forget to share your social media so you get the benefits. Because the best of knowledge is sharing. Work system. The trader is a hardworking person. However, it does not mean that entrepreneurs do not work hard, the difference is that traders carry out their own business activities and there is no interference from other people. If the entrepreneur, already has a system and there is management.
His job is only to monitor the performance of the team or its employees. Entrepreneurs do not run their own business, but they have a team that helps develop the business. Time problem. A trader needs a lot of time to run a business, yes for the previous reason earlier, they run everything alone. Traders have little time to interact with relations because time is used up for trading. Conversely, if the entrepreneur only has a little time to oversee his business. His time is up to build business relationships everywhere. The business he built has been run by the team himself.
Basically, some people consider traders and entrepreneurs to have no difference, but actually when examined carefully traders and entrepreneurs have many significant differences, one of which is that traders only want merchandise to sell well and earn income. While entrepreneurs generally think about planning their business in the long run Before examining the difference between traders and entrepreneurs, let us first find out what traders and entrepreneurs are sociodemographic characteristics and practices of retailers and consumers. Trader is a person or entity buying, receiving or storing goods with the intention to sell, deliver or send to another person or entity that is still in the form of genuine important goods, or that has been made into other goods.
Therefore, traders have the meaning that someone who sells an item wants to get a profit. That does not mean that entrepreneurs do not want to profit huh. In carrying out its business the trader will look for goods that have a lower price or below the selling price and will be sold again at a price difference that will be the profit of the sword. One example is a trader who buys vegetables at a price of 10 thousand rupiah, then he can sell it to 13 thousand rupiah.
That's how traders in general work. Entrepreneurs are people who have the ability to see and assess business opportunities. Gather the resources needed to take advantage of it and take appropriate action, to ensure success. Entrepreneurs will have a greater investment risk than those borne by the trader. Because entrepreneurs may not be able to get their profits right away. Another case with traders who can profit after selling their merchandise.
An entrepreneur will usually have a very strong mental and also resilient. Employers have also become accustomed to being pressured. That is because an entrepreneur may experience a major failure when his business cannot be accepted by the community. Mentalism between traders and entrepreneurs can be one of the biggest differences between them. The thing that distinguishes traders and entrepreneurs. The first difference between traders and entrepreneurs can be seen from the planning. An entrepreneur will definitely plan his business in the short term, medium term and also in the long term. As for traders, generally they are not too concerned with a plan.
For traders, if the merchandise sells, they are very happy. So there is no detailed monitoring of the benefits as carried out by an entrepreneur. The second difference is in the way of looking at consumers. A trader considers the consumer is the person who will give him money, therefore a trader will try to "seize" as much money from consumers by increasing prices so that there is a bargaining process. An entrepreneur is more maintaining good relations with consumers, therefore an entrepreneur tries to provide the best price for consumers in the hope that consumers are satisfied and become loyal customers for him.
Therefore, traders can be the first step as entrepreneurs, but many of them continue to be traders for life. That's because he besides not having a vision and not being able to build a plan of his business system, is also less able to optimize the potential such as capital owned to develop trade Hopefully this article is useful for you. Don't forget to share your social media so you get the benefits. Because the best of knowledge is sharing. Work system. The trader is a hardworking person. However, it does not mean that entrepreneurs do not work hard, the difference is that traders carry out their own business activities and there is no interference from other people. If the entrepreneur, already has a system and there is management.
His job is only to monitor the performance of the team or its employees. Entrepreneurs do not run their own business, but they have a team that helps develop the business. Time problem. A trader needs a lot of time to run a business, yes for the previous reason earlier, they run everything alone. Traders have little time to interact with relations because time is used up for trading. Conversely, if the entrepreneur only has a little time to oversee his business. His time is up to build business relationships everywhere. The business he built has been run by the team himself.
Fungus Prevention in the Processing Industry
Fungus Prevention in the Processing Industry
The world is known to have around 120.35 million ha of tropical forests, the second largest in the world which covers about ten percent of the world's tropical forests. The world is also known as a biodiversity country. The world has no less than 4000 of the largest types of wood in the entire forest, but of that number no more than 200 types of wood have been known to be commercially traded so far. At present it is felt by the world community in general that the price of wood is increasingly expensive. An increase in the price of wood or processed wood products may be felt as a natural reason because of the many factors involved that support the rising prices of these products.
Although this is acceptable for physicochemical properties and diversity of degrading fungi, it is also understandable that wood supply is indeed declining because commercial timber species are producing increasingly depleted natural forests and cannot yet be replaced completely with plantation forest production forests. As a result, the supply of wood will change from commercial types to non-commercial types or unknown types of wood (Lesser know species) production of natural forests or secondary forests as well as the type of wood planted by the people as community forest products. On the other hand the reality shows that 80 - 85% of the world's wood has low durability (class III - IV). In other words, most of these types of wood are susceptible to various types of wood-damaging organisms.
This fact is also supported by the geogarfic location of the World at the equator with its tropical climate that allows the presence of various types of wood-damaging organisms such as termites, dry wood powder, weathered fungi. Thus it can be understood why the threat of wood damage in the World is so great. There is no reason to be able to avoid the decline of wood in a building where the causes can be overcome or controlled. The wood used outside the roof is in direct contact with the ground or seawater will eventually rot or be attacked by marine drills or insects. But its useful life can be greatly extended with proper treatment.
To avoid setbacks in buildings or to extend the life of wood materials used under harsh conditions, those who use wood products must understand the conditions that can develop setbacks and the precautions to be taken. Biological agents are the main cause of wood damage, as a result of fungi that cause stains, softening and spoilage; marine borers, especially sea worms and small sea shells; insects including termites, wood ants; various wood boring beetles; and bekteri which causes weathering on wood which if long submerged by water. This fungus comes from the Basidiomycetes class, has the ability to overhaul cellulose and lignin, which are the main components of wood cell walls, so that the strength of wood is reduced. Some types of mushrooms only remodel cellulose, so the color of the wood turns brown and is called brown rot.
Other types remodel cellulose and lignin, so that the color of the wood becomes pale white and is called white rot. The mechanical properties of wood such as firmness, flexural firmness, compressive firmness, hardness and elasticity will be reduced if attacked by wood rot fungi. In general, brown rot mushrooms reduce wood strength faster than white rot. In the world the group of wood destroying insects is the main. Losses due to termite attacks are not small, small animals that are classified into social insects, are able to destroy large buildings and cause large losses as well (Tambunan and Nandika, 1989). Hunt and Garrat (1988) state that these wood-damaging organisms attack a wide variety of wooden buildings, such as poles, support poles, mining reinforcement poles, oil-drilling towers, wooden bridges.
Because wood and plants contain high cellulose, both plants are always the main prey for termites (Nicholas, 1987). Tambunan and Nandika (1989) state that parts of woody plants that have decayed and ground soils are interesting foods for wood destroying organisms. Hunt and Garrat (1986) stated that in a state of forced skin or plastic can also be attacked by this insect. Tambunan and Nandika (1989) state that organisms are the main inhabitants of forested areas, which obtain most of their food from fallen trees and branches, and dead stumps and roots. Haygreen and BoVvyer (1993) stated that termites use wood from the ground or protective tunnels they construct as a means of reaching wood.
The world is known to have around 120.35 million ha of tropical forests, the second largest in the world which covers about ten percent of the world's tropical forests. The world is also known as a biodiversity country. The world has no less than 4000 of the largest types of wood in the entire forest, but of that number no more than 200 types of wood have been known to be commercially traded so far. At present it is felt by the world community in general that the price of wood is increasingly expensive. An increase in the price of wood or processed wood products may be felt as a natural reason because of the many factors involved that support the rising prices of these products.
Although this is acceptable for physicochemical properties and diversity of degrading fungi, it is also understandable that wood supply is indeed declining because commercial timber species are producing increasingly depleted natural forests and cannot yet be replaced completely with plantation forest production forests. As a result, the supply of wood will change from commercial types to non-commercial types or unknown types of wood (Lesser know species) production of natural forests or secondary forests as well as the type of wood planted by the people as community forest products. On the other hand the reality shows that 80 - 85% of the world's wood has low durability (class III - IV). In other words, most of these types of wood are susceptible to various types of wood-damaging organisms.
This fact is also supported by the geogarfic location of the World at the equator with its tropical climate that allows the presence of various types of wood-damaging organisms such as termites, dry wood powder, weathered fungi. Thus it can be understood why the threat of wood damage in the World is so great. There is no reason to be able to avoid the decline of wood in a building where the causes can be overcome or controlled. The wood used outside the roof is in direct contact with the ground or seawater will eventually rot or be attacked by marine drills or insects. But its useful life can be greatly extended with proper treatment.
To avoid setbacks in buildings or to extend the life of wood materials used under harsh conditions, those who use wood products must understand the conditions that can develop setbacks and the precautions to be taken. Biological agents are the main cause of wood damage, as a result of fungi that cause stains, softening and spoilage; marine borers, especially sea worms and small sea shells; insects including termites, wood ants; various wood boring beetles; and bekteri which causes weathering on wood which if long submerged by water. This fungus comes from the Basidiomycetes class, has the ability to overhaul cellulose and lignin, which are the main components of wood cell walls, so that the strength of wood is reduced. Some types of mushrooms only remodel cellulose, so the color of the wood turns brown and is called brown rot.
Other types remodel cellulose and lignin, so that the color of the wood becomes pale white and is called white rot. The mechanical properties of wood such as firmness, flexural firmness, compressive firmness, hardness and elasticity will be reduced if attacked by wood rot fungi. In general, brown rot mushrooms reduce wood strength faster than white rot. In the world the group of wood destroying insects is the main. Losses due to termite attacks are not small, small animals that are classified into social insects, are able to destroy large buildings and cause large losses as well (Tambunan and Nandika, 1989). Hunt and Garrat (1988) state that these wood-damaging organisms attack a wide variety of wooden buildings, such as poles, support poles, mining reinforcement poles, oil-drilling towers, wooden bridges.
Because wood and plants contain high cellulose, both plants are always the main prey for termites (Nicholas, 1987). Tambunan and Nandika (1989) state that parts of woody plants that have decayed and ground soils are interesting foods for wood destroying organisms. Hunt and Garrat (1986) stated that in a state of forced skin or plastic can also be attacked by this insect. Tambunan and Nandika (1989) state that organisms are the main inhabitants of forested areas, which obtain most of their food from fallen trees and branches, and dead stumps and roots. Haygreen and BoVvyer (1993) stated that termites use wood from the ground or protective tunnels they construct as a means of reaching wood.
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